Sub-cultures bring out differences in personality within:

a) A society

b) A group

c) A community

d) A family

Wealth is not a feature of Indian Culture.

The term culture refers to a state of intellectual development or manners. The social and political forces that influence the growth of a human being is defined as culture.

Indian culture is rich and diverse and as a result unique in its very own way. Our manners, way of communicating with one another, etc are one of the important components of our culture. Even though we have accepted modern means of living, improved our lifestyle, our values and beliefs still remain unchanged. A person can change his way of clothing, way of eating and living but the rich values in a person always remains unchanged because they are deeply rooted within our hearts, mind, body and soul which we receive from our culture.

Indian culture treats guests as god and serves them and takes care of them as if they are a part and parcel of the family itself. Even though we don’t have anything to eat, the guests are never left hungry and are always looked after by the members of the family. Elders and the respect for elders is a major component in Indian culture. Elders are the driving force for any family and hence the love and respect for elders comes from within and is not artificial. An individual takes blessings from his elders by touching their feet. Elders drill and pass on the Indian culture within us as we grow.

“Respect one another” is another lesson that is taught from the books of Indian culture. All people are alike and respecting one another is ones duty. In foreign countries the relation between the boss and the employee is like a master and slave and is purely monetary whereas in Indian culture the relation between the boss and the employee is more like homely relations unlike foreign countries.

Helpful nature is another striking feature in our Indian culture. Right from our early days of childhood we are taught to help one another in need of help and distress. If not monetary then at least in kind or non-monetary ways. Indian culture tells us to multiply and distribute joy and happiness and share sadness and pain. It tells us that by all this we can develop co-operation and better living amongst ourselves and subsequently make this world a better place to live in.

Political upheavals is not responsible for the cultural lag.

Culture lag is defined as the time between the appearance of a new material invention and the making of appropriate adjustments in corresponding area of non-material culture. This time is often long. It was over fifty years, for example, after the typewriter was invented before it was used systematically in offices. Even today, we may have a family system better adapted to a farm economy than to an urban industrial one, and nuclear weapons exist in a diplomatic atmosphere attuned to the nineteenth century. As the discussion implies, the concept of culture lag is associated with the definition of social problems. Scholars envision some balance or adjustment existing between material and non-material cultures. That balance is upset by the appearance of raw material objects. The resulting imbalance is defined as a social problem until non-material culture changes in adjustment to the new technology.

The concept of contra-culture was given by Milton Inger


contra-culture is where subcultures specifically stand in direct opposition to the dominant culture of the society in which they are located, rejecting its most important values and norms and endorsing their opposites, they are sometimes termed ‘contra-cultures’ or ‘counter-cultures’. The term was popularly applied to the student and hippy cultures identified with the youth conflicts around 1968, but it can have a wider usage.

 
Every society devises its own standard of behaviour and exercise upon individuals and groups to maintain order and conformity with the accepted standards of behaviour. It is the controlling and constraining force that brings social harmony and maintains solidarity in the society.

The concept of social control was originally given by E.A.ross who defined it as the system of devices whereby society brings its members into conformity with the accepted standards of behaviour.

Fairchild defines it as 'sum total of the processes whereby society, or any group within the society, secures conformity to expectations on the part, of  its constituent units, individuals and groups.


According to Karl Mannheim, social control is 'the sum of those methods by which society tries to influence human behaviour to maintain a given order.


Ogburn and Nimkoff held the view that ‘social control is the patterns of pressure which a society exerts to maintain order and established rules'


Functions of Social Control:-


1) Conformity:

The primary purpose of social control is to bring about social conformity with the accepted standard of behaviour. Individuals must act within the standard set  by the society and should not cross the limits, of tolerance, the violation of which often attracts criticism and punishment.


2) Social Solidarity:-

The society maintains the device when requires every member of the society, groups, organizations and institutions to be integrated and maintain harmony. All intra-group hostilities should be sorted out and a balanced society should be evolved.


3) Social Continuity:-

Society exerts such a mechanism that every group or organization or institutions, transmit itself through generations and thereby maintain the survival.

Cultural Area:
Clark Wissler defined the restricted area of a culture as culture-area. He demonstrated that in a cultural area - comprising a set of culture complexes-a central point of disposal could be identified.


Marginal Area:
the people who live on the borders of two cultural areas share features from both the ways of living. These have been called marginal areas.


Cultural Focus:
This term was coined by M.J. Herskovits to refer to "the tendency of every culture  to exhibit greater complexity, greater variation in the institutions of some of its aspect than the other. So stocking is this tendency to develop certain phases of life. While other remains in the background, so to speak, that is the shorthand of the disciplines that study human societies, these focal aspects are used to characterize whole cultures."

The hypothesis of cultural focus refers the dynamics of culture to the only instruments through which change in culture can be achieved-- the individuals who compose a society where a way of life is undergoing change.


Cultural Reproduction:
The term was introduced by P.Bourdieu, who see the function of education system as being to reproduce the culture of dominant classes, thus helping to ensure their continued   dominance.



Cultural Drift:
Unplanned cultural change resulting from a series of small changes within a culture in the same direction. These changes are cumulative and in time lead to the emergence of new cultural forms.

The organism possessing less adaptive trait in a certain natural condition will be eliminated. This is called as Natural Selection.

Darwin did not believe that evolution follows a predetermined direction or that it has an inevitable goal.  His explanation that evolution occurs as a result of natural selection implied that chance plays a major role.  He understood that it is a matter of luck whether any individuals in a population have variations that will allow them to survive and reproduce.  If no such variations exist, the population rapidly goes extinct because it cannot adapt to a changing environment.  Unlike Lamarck, Darwin did not believe that evolution inevitably produces more complex life forms and that the ultimate result of this process is humans.  These were shocking, revolutionary ideas even for scientists who accepted evolution.


Today we use the term adaptive radiation to refer to this sort of branching evolution in which different populations of a species become reproductively isolated from each other by adapting to different ecological niches click this icon to hear the preceding term pronounced and eventually become separate species.


Darwin came to understand that any population consists of individuals that are all slightly different from one another.  Those individuals having a variation that gives them an advantage in staying alive long enough to successfully reproduce are the ones that pass on their traits more frequently to the next generation.  Subsequently, their traits become more common and the population evolves.  Darwin called this "descent with modification."


The Galápagos finches provide an excellent example of this process.  Among the birds that ended up in arid environments, the ones with beaks better suited for eating cactus got more food.  As a result, they were in better condition to mate.  Similarly, those with beak shapes that were better suited to getting nectar from flowers or eating hard seeds in other environments were at an advantage there.  In a very real sense, nature selected the best adapted varieties to survive and to reproduce.  This process has come to be known as natural selection.

Ruth Benedict identified two types of personalities which include, Dionysian and Apollonian. She is of the view that t "different cultures create different personality traits."

She set out a number of different cultural configurations in her book, showing how for example, the Zuñi interpreted everything that happened to them in terms of perceptual modes that privilege order, conformity, and temperance - she called this the Apollonian configuration - whereas the Plains Indians interpreted life in polar opposite terms, namely that what matters most in life are personal experiences of excess - the Dionysian configuration.

Not to be missed here, is her characterization of modern American culture. In line with other Boasian anthropologists of her day, she was critical of self-congratulatory Americans, as if Americans were destined for greatness. She turned her cultural explanation back onto us and interpreted our dominant configuration as, neither Apollonian nor Dionysian, but as paranoid megalomania, comparable in many respects to the Kwakiutl of the northwest coast for whom victory over others is everything.

Robert Pirsig is critical of Benedict's wholism because it describes cultural life in static terms. The Apollonian is distinct from the Dionysian and, in a sense, fixed in that distinctiveness. However and without denying the worth of Pirsig's criticism, I have contended that Benedict moved boldly out and away from some even more problematic views of her day, views, for example, that credited isolated individuals with extraordinary powers (agency) such as the power to have cultural traits. She grafted some budding Modernist insights onto notions drawn from gestalt psychology and arrived at a sophisticated view of human social life. She did not always spell out her views with consistency, but, as often happens, pioneering proposals are often filled with confusions that subsequent scholarship, less creative but more fastidious, must clean up.

The National Human Rights Commission consists of a chairperson and four members, all of them being full time members. Apart  From these full time members as the chairperson of the National Commission for Minorities, the National Commission for the SCs and STS and the National Commission for women. The mutli-membership is intended to reinforce the independence and impartiality of the commission. Of the five members including the chairperson, three are to possess high-level judicial background and the remaining must have knowledge of or practical experience in matters relating to Human Rights. The chairperson must be no  less than a former Chief Justice of India.

The National Judicial Commission has the Chief Justice of India as its Chairperson, two senior most judges of the Supreme Court, the Union Minister of law and Justice and one eminent citizen to be nominated by the President in consultation with the prime minister being the other members. Functionally, the commission makes recommendations for the appointment of judges of the Supreme Court, Chief Justices and the Judges of the Supreme Court.  The Commission recommends transfers of justices of the High Courts.

The Chief Justice of the High Court and the Chief Minister of the state shall be associated with the commission in cases of appointments or transfer. The commission may draw up a code of ethics for judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. The commission has been vested with the power 'to inquire,' suo motu or on a complaint or reference, into cases of misconduct or such deviant behaviour of a judge other than those calling for his  removal and advice the Chief Justice of India or the Chief Justice of a High Court appropriately after such inquiry. The commission's procedure is left to itself, but what is the scope of appropriate recommendation in the event of misconduct and deviant behaviour is not specified, except to the extent that the removal of the judge is not within the purview of the commission's function.

The salaries and allowances of the High Court judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of state and are subject to vote in the state Legislature. The salaries and allowances cannot be changed to their disadvantage after their appointment except during a financial Emergency.

Article 138 (i) provides that the Supreme Court shall have such further jurisdiction and powers with respect to any of the matters in the Union List as the Parliament may by law confer.

Kurnool  was made a municipality in 1866 and  was the capital of Andra Pradesh  from 1953 until 1956, when the capital was moved to Hydrabad.

During the process of selection of a  certain  trait group of people must remain the combination, in-otherwise the genetic drift  will not be able to produce distinctive character.

In 1906 in India, a prominent Indian National Congress leader and theoretician, Dadabhai Naoroji published Poverty and Un-British Rule in India, a book that was to be crucial to the nationalist understanding of the colonial state in India. As the first detailed theoretical and critical analysis of the economic and administrative policies of the British government in nineteenth-century India, it related widespread poverty in the subcontinent to the drain of wealth from the colonized country to the metropole and to the destruction of its indigenous industry.10 The primary purpose of this critique was to expose colonial governance in India as "un-British rule." 

The deployment of the term "un-British" raises a critical question: under what historical and discursive conditions could one make a critique of British colonial government in India as being "un-British," since, by "un-British," Naoroji could clearly not have meant rule by a non-British people? How could the government be British and "un-British" at the same time? It is clear that by using the term "un-British," Naoroji was not referring to the people in charge of the government (who were British), but the actual mode of governance, and by extension the term "British" referred to the fundamental principle on which, he thought, it ought to have been based. In fact, he was precisely critiquing the tendency of the government to identify colonial rule in India with rule by the British people, thereby reducing the colony to the status of mere property in the hands of the latter. Naoroji's critique assumed a homology between the terms "un-British" and "unjust." British rule meant the rule of justice, and any deviation from the principle of justice would transform it into an "un-British" despotic rule.

But another future was preparing itself for Sri Aurobindo at the same time. It began in a most unobtrusive way soon after he came to Baroda. K.G. Deshpande, a friend from his Cambridge days, was in charge of a weekly, "Induprakash", published from Bombay. He requested Sri Aurobindo to write upon the current political situation. Sri Aurobindo began writing a series of fiery articles under the title "New Lamps for Old", strongly criticising the Congress for its moderate policy. Wrote Sri Aurobindo:

"Our actual enemy is not any force exterior to ourselves, but our own crying weaknesses, our cowardice, our selfishness, our hypocrisy, our purblind sentimentalism."

And he added,

"I say, of the Congress, then, this, - that its aims are mistaken, that the spirit in which it proceeds towards their accomplishment is not a spirit of sincerity and whole-heartedness, and that the methods it has chosen are not the right methods, and the leaders in whom it trusts, not the right sort of men to be leaders; - in brief, that we are at present theblind led, if not by the blind, at any rate by the one-eyed."

It would be interesting to remember that, when Sri Aurobindo wrote these scathing words with such insight he was merely 21 years old. The editors were frightened and requested Sri Aurobindo to write on cultural rather than political themes. Sri Aurobindo lost interest and the series stopped.

The Fifth Schedule of the constitution of India contains special provisions for the administration and control of Scheduled Area in seventh States.

PART A.   General
PART B.   Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
PART C.  Scheduled Areas
PART D.   Amendment of the Schedule